A laborer is one of the construction In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of multitasking. Normally the job is managed by the project manager and supervised by the construction manager, design engineer, trades, traditionally considered unskilled manual labor Manual labour is physical work done with the hands, especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking, road building, or any other field where the work may be considered physically arduous, and which has as a profitable objective, usually the production of goods, as opposed to skilled labor Skill is a measure of a worker's expertise, specialization, wages, and supervisory capacity. Skilled workers are generally more trained, higher paid, and have more responsibilities than unskilled workers.^{[clarification needed]} In the division of labor Division of labour or economic specialisation is the specialisation of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles. Historically an increasingly complex division of labour is closely associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialisation processes. Division of, laborers have all blasting Rock blasting is the controlled use of explosives to excavate or remove rock. It is a technique used most often in mining and civil engineering such as dam construction, hand tools A hand tool is a device for performing work on a material or a physical system using only hands. The hand tools can be manually used employing force, or electrically powered, using electrical current.[citation needed], power tools A power tool is a tool powered by an electric motor, a compressed air motor, an internal combustion engine, direct burning of fuels and propellants, or even natural power sources like wind or moving water. Power tools are classified as either stationary or portable, where portable means handheld. They are used in industry, in construction, and, air tools Pneumatic tools or air tools are tools driven by gas, usually compressed air supplied by a gas compressor. Pneumatic tools can also be driven by compressed carbon dioxide stored in small cylinders allowing for portability. Pneumatic tools are commonly cheaper and safer to run and maintain than their electric power tool counterparts, as well as, and small heavy equipment Heavy equipment refers to heavy-duty vehicles, specially designed for executing construction tasks, most frequently, ones involving earth moving. They are also known as construction equipment, earth movers, engineering vehicles, or just plain equipment. They usually comprise five equipment systems: implement, traction, structure, power train,, and act as assistants to other trades,^[1] e.g., operators or cement masons. The first century BC engineer Vitruvius Marcus Vitruvius Pollio was a Roman writer, architect and engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum during military service or praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group), active in the 1st century BC. By his own description Vitruvius served as a Ballista (artilleryman), the third class of arms in the military offices. He likely writes in detail about laborer practices at that time. In his experience a good crew of laborers is just as valuable as any other aspect of construction. Other than the addition of pneumatics Pneumatic systems are extensively used in industry, where factories are commonly plumbed with compressed air or other compressed inert gases. This is because a centrally-located and electrically-powered compressor that powers cylinders and other pneumatic devices through solenoid valves is often able to provide motive power in a cheaper, safer,, laborer practices have changed little. With the advent of advanced technology and its introduction into the construction field, the laborers have been quick to include much of this technology as being laborers work.

Tools and equipment

Laborers are typically required to provide their own basic hand tools. The following tools are considered a minimum: hammer, pliers (side-cutters), utility knife A utility knife is a cutting tool used in various trades and crafts for a variety of purposes. Designed to be lightweight, easy to carry and use, utility knives are commonly used in factories, warehouses, and other situations where a tool is routinely needed to open boxes, packages, or cut through tape or cord, tape measure, vise-grips, crescent wrench An adjustable spanner, shifting spanner, shifter, crescent wrench or adjustable-angle head wrench is a tool which can be used to loosen or tighten a nut or bolt. It has a "jaw" (the part into which the nut or bolt goes) which is of adjustable size, which allows for different size nuts and bolts to be handled by the same spanner. Compare, screwdriver A screwdriver is a tool for driving screws and rotating other machine elements with the mating drive system. The screwdriver is made up of a head or tip, which engages with a screw, a mechanism to apply torque by rotating the tip, and some way to position and support the screwdriver. A typical hand screwdriver comprises an approximately, margin trowel The Masonry trowel is a hand trowel used in brickwork or stonework for leveling, spreading and shaping mortar or concrete. They come in several shapes and sizes depending on the task. The following is a list of the more common masonry trowels:, carpenter's pencil or soapstone, tool belt and pouches. In addition: a five gallon bucket The five gallon bucket is a common plastic container size in the United States. They are approx. fifteen inches tall with a diameter of twelve inches. Two or three reinforcement collars are located near the top. A wire or plastic handle is usually attached to the top three inches. The buckets are able to nest in one another. The 5 gallon bucket is with additional tools, toolbelt suspenders, water jug and lunchbox is recommended. Most safety equipment that is consumed or work specific e.g. hard hat A hard hat is a type of helmet predominantly used in workplace environments, such as construction sites, to protect the head from injury by falling objects, impact with other objects, debris, bad weather and electric shock. Inside the helmet is a suspension that spreads the helmet's weight over the top of the head. It also provides a space of, safety glasses Glasses are frames bearing lenses worn in front of the eyes, normally for vision correction, eye protection, or for protection from UV rays, hearing protection Hearing protectors are devices designed to prevent Noise-Induced Hearing Loss , a type of post-lingual hearing impairment, gloves, fall protection A safety harness is a form of protective equipment designed to protect a person, animal, or object from injury or damage. The harness is an attachment between a stationary and non-stationary object and is usually fabricated from rope, cable or Webbing and locking hardware. Some safety harnesses are used in combination with a shock absorber, which, High-visibility clothing High-visibility clothing, a type of personal protective equipment , is any clothing worn that has highly reflective properties or a color that is easily discernible from any background. Yellow waistcoats worn by emergency services are a common example, concrete boots, respirator A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful dusts, fumes, vapors, and/or gases. Respirators come in a wide range of types and sizes used by the military, private industry, and the public. Respirators range from cheaper, single-use, disposable masks to reusable models with replaceable cartridges/dust mask A dust mask is a flexible pad held over the nose and mouth by elastic or rubber straps to protect against dusts encountered during construction or cleaning activities, such as dusts from drywall, concrete, fiberglass, silica , or sweeping. A dust mask is worn in the same fashion as a paint mask or surgical mask, but it is dangerous to confuse the and toe guards Steel-toe boots are durable boots or shoes that have a protective reinforcement in the toe, usually combined with a sole plate, which protect the foot from falling objects and punctures from below [1] are provided by the employer as part of construction site safety Construction is the most dangerous land-based work sector in Europe, after the fishing industry. In the European Union, the fatal accident rate is nearly 13 workers per 100,000 as against 5 per 100,000 for the all sector average. Personal safety equipment e.g. full leather boots, high strength pants, socks, chapstick, and climate specific outerwear, is provided by the individual.

Types of work

Some of the work done by laborers includes:^[2]

• concrete Concrete is a construction material composed of cement and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures - shotcrete Shotcrete and gunite are two commonly used terms for substances applied via pressure hoses. Shotcrete is concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete undergoes placement and compaction at the same time due to the force with which it is projected from the nozzle. It can be impacted onto any, gunite Shotcrete and gunite are two commonly used terms for substances applied via pressure hoses. Shotcrete is concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete undergoes placement and compaction at the same time due to the force with which it is projected from the nozzle. It can be impacted onto any, grouting Grout is a construction material used to embed rebars in masonry walls, connect sections of pre-cast concrete, fill voids, and seal joints . Grout is generally composed of a mixture of water, cement, sand, often color tint, and sometimes fine gravel (if it is being used to fill the cores of cement blocks). It is applied as a thick liquid and and steel forms Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering moulds
• paving Road surface or pavement (American English) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic. In the past cobblestones and granite setts were extensively used, but these surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete. Such surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. Today, permeable - white paving formwork, traffic control, striping Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians. Uniformity of the markings is an important factor in minimizing confusion and uncertainty about their meaning, and efforts exist to standardise such markings across borders. However, countries and areas categorize and specifiy road, signs
• piping Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids from one location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transport of fluid - water pipe Water pipes are pipes or tubes, frequently made of polyvinyl chloride , ductile iron, polyethylene, or copper, that carry pressurized and treated fresh water to buildings (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building, sewer A sanitary sewer is a type of an underground carriage system, (the 'system of sewers' is called sewerage), for transporting sewage from houses or industry to treatment or disposal. In some areas, sanitary sewers are separate sewer systems specifically for the carrying of domestic and industrial wastewater, and are operated separately and and storm drain A storm drain, storm sewer , stormwater drain, drain (Australia and New Zealand) or drainage well system (UK) is designed to drain excess rain and ground water from paved streets, parking lots, sidewalks, and roofs. Storm drains vary in design from small residential dry wells to large municipal systems. They are fed by street gutters on most
• dry utilities A public utility is an organization that maintains the infrastructure for a public service (often also providing a service using that infrastructure). Public utilities are subject to forms of public control and regulation ranging from local community-based groups to state-wide government monopolies. Common arguments in favor of regulation include - electrical conduit An electrical conduit is a purpose-designed electrical piping system used for protection and routing of electrical wiring. Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fibre, or fired clay. Flexible conduit is available for special purposes and communications conduit
• demolition Demolition is the tearing-down of buildings and other structures, the opposite of construction. Demolition contrasts with deconstruction, which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for re-use - concrete cutting A concrete saw is a power tool used for cutting concrete, masonry, brick, asphalt, tile, and other solid materials. Concrete saws are powered by gasoline, hydraulic or pneumatic pressure, or electric motors. The significant friction generated in cutting hard substances like concrete usually requires the blades to be cooled to prolong their life, pavement breaking, cutting torch Oxy-fuel welding and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals, respectively. French engineers Edmond Fouche and Charles Picard became the first to develop an oxygen-acetylene welding machine in 1903
• tunnels A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Other uses include routing power or telecommunication cables, some are to permit wildlife such as European badgers to cross highways. Secret tunnels have given - drilling Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole in solid materials. The drill bit is a multipoint, end cutting tool. It cuts by applying pressure and rotation to the workpiece, which forms chips at the cutting edge and blasting Rock blasting is the controlled use of explosives to excavate or remove rock. It is a technique used most often in mining and civil engineering such as dam construction
• hod carrier A brick hod is a three-sided box for carrying bricks or other construction materials, often mortar. It bears a long handle and is carried over the shoulder. A hod is usually long enough to accept 4 bricks on their side, however, by arranging the bricks in a chevron fashion, the number of bricks that may be carried is only limited to the weight the - block masonry Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone such as marble, granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block, glass block, and tile. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of, plasterers The term plaster can refer to gypsum plaster , lime plaster, or cement plaster and fireproofing Fireproofing, a passive fire protection measure, refers to the act of making materials or structures more resistant to fire, or to those materials themselves, or the act of applying such materials. Applying a certification listed fireproofing system to certain structures allows these to have a fire-resistance rating. The term fireproof does not
• environmental remediation Generally, remediation means providing a remedy, so environmental remediation deals with the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment, or surface water for the general protection of human health and the environment or from a brownfield site intended for redevelopment. Remediation is and hazardous waste U.S. environmental laws additionally describe a "hazardous waste" as a waste (usually a solid waste) that has the potential to:
• fences and landscaping

Much of the work traditionally claimed by laborers is merely work that did not fit into any other workforce's labor classification. These other classifications (in order of prestige) typically include the heavy equipment operators, ironworkers, carpenters, masons, teamsters/truck drivers and hod carriers. In addition, work that typically was shunned by journeymen of other trade unions tradesman/craftsman or was given to their apprentices is generally done by laborers in the absence of apprentices.

An example is the operators who in the division of labor have all the equipment. Most operators will not operate equipment they perceive as lowly such as skid steer, kick-brooms and telescopic handlers, laborers usually are used to operate these unless an operator apprentice is available and demands his right to operate. The same is true for most other trades except the ironworkers who are notorious for protecting their work and not wanting anyone else to touch their steel, tie-wire or Kliens. The advantage to this system is that many laborers gain sufficient experience working with another trade to journeyman-in while earning a higher wage than an apprentice. Many foremen will gradually give a laborer extra responsibility until they are performing at a journeyman level and can enter a more skilled union as a journeyman.

Pay

The pay for a union laborer is equal or greater than most work available to anyone with a bachelor degree, making this one of the few fields where someone without a high school degree can still earn a living wage. Union, heavy construction and highway construction laborers earn on average (2008 US) $25.47/h compared to 13.72/h for non-union laborers^[3] In addition to paid earnings, union laborers enjoy the benefits of medical insurance, vacation pay, pension plans, representation and vocational schools. It is not uncommon for young civil engineers, construction managers and construction engineers to earn less than their apprentice laborers. However, unlike engineers, laborers are not usually employed full time year round. The additional pay they receive is often balanced out by the lesser unemployment checks they receive while out of work. These unemployment checks supplement the winter pay laborers often earn as independent contractors and under-the-table work. On average young engineers earn (2007 US$) 40,000 to 60,000 while union laborers on average earn 50,000 to 80,000. Engineers are not immune to being out of work, in heavy civil work some are employed on a project basis. They are not guaranteed a place on any subsequent projects, though this is in practice often the case. The value of work put in place by laborers and the value of avoided rework and increased efficiencies produced by the engineers' planning is a balance of resource utilization on any large project. Union laborers earn more than unfree labor and can be an avenue for those who are uneducated and with no resources to become educated and with resources.

Hazards and conditions

There are dangers accociated with laboring. Many laborers are severely injured or killed by accident each year while performing work duties. Many who work as laborers for even a short period of time will suffer from permanent work injuries such as: hearing loss, arthritis, osteoarthritis, back injuries, eye injury, head injury, chemical burn (lime sensitivity), lung disease, missing finger nails and skin scars. Alcoholism and drug use (drug abuse) is common although most companies require drug screening for all new hires. If a laborer is injured on the job they are immediately given a drug test. If the test results are positive then they are ineligible for any Workers' compensation benefits. There is a gray area for the use of marijuana due to medical marijuana prescriptions. Some who have been dismissed for failing a drug test while possessing a prescription have been later reinstated with pay as having been wrongfully terminated. The Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA) represents laborers on public and private projects. Some of the business representatives are laborers who have been so severely injured they can no longer labor. With a phone call and a good reason they will be on-site the next morning asking questions and demanding apologies for mistreatment of laborers.

This job, at times, and depending on who is in charge, qualifies for the 3D's, Dirty, Dangerous and Demeaning, or showing global connotation, as the Japanese say it kitanai, kiken, and kitsui. ^[4] Many other times laboring is a very gratifying job with lots of fresh air (jobsite air quality) and sunshine. The sheer hardship, drudgery and physical demands of the job ensure that there is always a shortage of good laborers.

See also

• navvy, particularly applied to describe the manual laborers working on major civil engineering projects

External links

Organizations

• Laborers Local 185, Welcome Home
• Northern California District Council of Laborers (NCDCL)
• Klein Tolls Inc.
• Laborers International Union of North America (LIUNA)

Construction Engineering & Management Education

• California Polytechnic State University
• California State University
• Sacramento State
• Stanford University

Occupational Outlook Handbook

• All occupations at U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
• Laborors at U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
• Career Voyages - Good Jobs, Better Pay, Brighter Future
• Wages, Earnings, and Benefits at U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

References

1. ^ Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition, Construction Laborers, on the Internet at U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (visited May 31, 2008).
2. ^ Laborers' Local 185, Scope of Work, on the Internet at Laborers Local 185, Welcome Home (visited May 31, 2008).
3. ^ Laborers' International Union of North America, Better Jobs, on the Internet at Laborers' International Union of North America (visited May 31, 2008).
4. ^ "Dirty, Dangerous and Demeaning." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 14 May 2008, 17:01 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 June 2008. Dirty, Dangerous and Demeaning.

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